#DIGITAL STEREOLOGY IN NEUROPATHOLOGY SERIES#
#DIGITAL STEREOLOGY IN NEUROPATHOLOGY FREE#

Although the localization is not fully clear, it is believed that waves I, II, III, IV, and V correlate with the activity of the auditory nerve, cochlear nucleus, superior olivary complex, lateral lemniscus, and inferior colliculus, respectively.

#DIGITAL STEREOLOGY IN NEUROPATHOLOGY SERIES#

The electrical activity recorded after stimulation includes a series of five to seven vertexpositive waves, each of which is considered to correspond to a specific site in the auditory pathway. It reflects electrical activity in the auditory nerve and its brainstem connections. The auditory brain stem response (ABR), which is measured by evoked potential recording, is one the best tools to evaluate auditory neuropathy. Reducing levels of ROS can decrease oxidative stress in neurons, thereby controlling neuropathy (including auditory neuropathy) in patients with diabetes. Rutin is known to have anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and antioxidant activity, the latter of which it exerts by scavenging ROS. This glycoside is found in many plants and fruits, including citrus fruits, apple, and buckwheat. Rutin, also called rutoside, is a bioflavonoid formed by the flavonol quercetin and the disaccharide rutinose. Many agents, such as benfotiamine (a vitamin B1 derivative), alpha-lipoic acid, folic acid, and ruboxistaurin (a protein kinase C-beta inhibitor) have been investigated in experimental and clinical trials to determine whether they reduce the rate and severity of neuropathy, but none has led to definitive results thus, further studies are needed to find an effective way to manage diabetic neuropathy. Despite our knowledge of the mechanisms underlying diabetic neuropathy, little is known about its prevention and treatment. Auditory neuropathy clinically presents with hearing loss, tinnitus, and dizziness, which have a major effect on quality of life. Microcirculation disorders also affect the auditory system through structural and functional changes. Neuropathy in DM primarily occurs to damage to feeding vessels, as the effects of ischemia on nerves include the demyelination and degeneration of neural fibers.

Endothelial damage causes basement membrane thickening and cellular proliferation, thereby shrinking the vascular lumen.

In addition to radical species, hyperlipidemia and persistent hemoglobin glycosylation damage the vascular endothelium.

#DIGITAL STEREOLOGY IN NEUROPATHOLOGY FREE#

These mechanisms all result in increased levels of free radicals, especially reactive oxygen species (ROS), in tissues throughout the body. Hyperglycemia also increases the formation of advanced glycation end-products, activates protein kinase C, poly (adenosine diphosphate-ribose) polymerase, and the hexosamine pathway, and causes changes in neurotrophic factors. Hyperglycemia upregulates the polyol pathway, aldose reductase activity, and sorbitol production. Metabolic aberrations in neuropathy are mainly the result of oxidative stress and the polyol pathway. Diabetic neuropathy involves sensory, motor, and autonomic nerves. Diabetes imposes a high burden in terms of mortality and morbidity, primarily due to vascular and nervous system (peripheral and central) involvement. Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disease that affects multiple organs throughout the body.

Digital stereology in neuropathology